Throughout the second half of the 18th century and most of the 19th century, neoclassicism remained the predominant building style in Europe, spreading from Western to Eastern regions of the continent and much of Latin America and the United States, where newly formed governments sought to emulate the architecture of ancient Greece, the birthplace of democracy. [12] Following their lead are Ernesto Cardenal (Nicaragua), Roque Dalton (El Salvador), Nicolás Guillén (Cuba), Gonzalo Rojas (Chile) and Mario Benedetti (Uruguay), and Peruvians Blanca Varela, Jorge Eduardo Eielson or Javier Sologuren. Hence the Chilean Alberto Fuguet coined McOndo as an antidote to the Macondo-ism that demanded of aspiring writers that they set their tales in steamy tropical jungles in which the fantastic and the real happily coexisted. Martí warned readers about the imperialistic tendencies of the United States and described how Latin America should avoid allowing the United States to intervene in their affairs. Verso. Notes and Chronology on Aleijadinho . As such, the region's literature is often associated solely with this style, with the 20th Century literary movement known as Latin American Boom, and with its most famous exponent, Gabriel García Márquez. The promotion of classicism in the visual arts in late eighteenth and nineteenth-century Latin America and the need to “revive” buen gusto (good taste) are the themes of this collection of essays. Synonyms for neoclassicism in Free Thesaurus. Across cultures – An interconnected world is not as recent as we think. Remember, it was the East German government who had to build a wall to keep their people from spilling out of the country. Moreover, a tradition of oral narrative survives to this day, for instance among the Quechua-speaking population of Peru and the Quiché of Guatemala. Neoclassicism in America. Latin American countries have long exhibited low levels of saving rates when compared to other countries in relatively similar stages of economic development (e.g., Asian economies). Saving Rates in Latin America: A Neoclassical Perspective. Toward the end of the 18th Century and the beginning of the 19th, a distinctive criollo literary tradition emerged, including the first novels such as José Joaquín Fernández de Lizardi's El Periquillo Sarniento (1816). Neoclassicism was a revival of Greek and Roman forms and ideas that emerged in late 18th century Europe and North America. What are synonyms for neoclassicism? 1. Neoclassicism continued to be a major force in academic art through the h century and beyond—a constant antithesis to Romanticism or Gothic revivals —although from the late h century on it had often been considered anti-modern, or even reactionary, in influential critical circles. Home; About; The Peale Family. Today, neoclassical … Economic Policy and Stabilization in Latin America By Nader Nazmi M. E. Sharpe, 1996 Read preview Overview Cost-Benefit Analysis as Operationalized Neoclassical Economics: From Evidence to Folklore By Argyrous, George Journal of Australian Political Economy, No. Synonyms for neoclassicism in Free Thesaurus. Lexico's first Word of the Year! Senators in Argentina voted resoundingly in favour of allowing abortion in early pregnancy yesterday, cementing some of the most liberal laws to terminate a pregnancy in Latin America.Hundreds of These souvenirs made their way across the continent, into North America, and through Latin America in the 19th century, furthering the expansion. If you read Borges frequently and closely, you become something of a Borgesian, because to read him is to activate an awareness of literature in which he has gone farther than anybody else." This article analyzes the nature of micro-entrepreneurship in Argentina and relates it to the empirical evidence available for other Latin American countries. Abstract. Leaders of the vanguard whose poetry express love, romance, and a commitment to left leaning regional politics are Cesar Vallejo (Peru) and Nobel laureate Pablo Neruda (Chile). The debt crisis hit Latin America very hard. During the colonial period, written culture was often in the hands of the church, the context within which Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz wrote memorable poetry and philosophical essays. The promotion of classicism in the visual arts in late eighteenth and nineteenth-century Latin America and the need to “revive” buen gusto (good taste) are the themes of this collection of essays. Neoclassical architecture, which began in the mid 18th century, looks to the classical past of the Graeco-Roman era, the Renaissance, and classicized Baroque to convey a new era based on Enlightenment principles. STUDY. Their works foreshadowed the events to come in the future of Latin America, with the 1970s and 1980s dictatorships, economic turmoil, and Dirty Wars. 3. N2 - The promotion of classicism in the visual arts in late eighteenth and nineteenth-century Latin America and the need to “revive” buen gusto (good taste) are the themes of this collection of essays. Latin America Saving rate Motivated by this fact, this paper examines the time path of the saving rates between 1970 and 2010 in three Latin American countries –Chile, Colombia, and Mexico– through the lens of the neoclassical growth model. 6 words related to neoclassicism: artistic style, idiom, arts, humanistic discipline, humanities, liberal arts. Another key contribution that helped fuel the rise of Neoclassicism was the work of German philosopher and archaeologist Johann … Triumph of the Name of Jesus - 1676 - 1679 - Giovanni Battista Gauli - Baroque in Italy. Château de Bagatelle from Paris, a small Neoclassical château Neoclassical architecture is an architectural style produced by the Neoclassical movement that began in the mid-18th century in Italy and France. The Failure of Neoclassical Economics in Latin America. In the United States Neoclassicism continued to flourish throughout the 19th century, as many architects looked to make the analogy between the young country and imperial Rome when designing major government buildings. Neo. Saving Rates in Latin America: A Neoclassical Perspective. Facade of San Carlo Alle Quattro Fontane - 1665 - 1676 - By Francesco Borromini - Baroque in Italy. relations of contemporary Latin America The role of theory, as a methodological heuristic tool, has been overvalued in recent decades due to the influence of American intellectual production. It rose to particular prominence globally during the second half of the 20th century, largely due to the international success of the style known as magical realism. In direct opposition to Renaissance attitudes, where man was seen as basically good, the Neoclassical … American neoclassicism was at first a channel of English antiquarianism. PLAY. Other important works of 19th century Latin American literature include regional classics, such as José Hernández's epic poem Martín Fierro (1872). Neoclassical architecture, which began in the mid 18th century, looks to the classical past of the Graeco-Roman era, the Renaissance, and classicized Baroque to convey a new era based on Enlightenment principles. Classical. In Chile, Braulio Arenas and others founded in 1938 the Mandrágora group, strongly influenced by Surrealism as well as by Vicente Huidobro's Creacionismo. Motivated by this fact, this paper examines the time path of the saving rates between 1970 and 2010 in three Latin American countries {Chile, Colombia, and Mexico{ through the lens of … David and Canova are examples of neoclassicists. STUDY. Economic Policy and Stabilization in Latin America By Nader Nazmi M. E. Sharpe, 1996 Read preview Overview Cost-Benefit Analysis as Operationalized Neoclassical Economics: From Evidence to Folklore By Argyrous, George Journal of Australian Political Economy, No. Such works are still the bedrocks of national canons, and usually mandatory elements of high school curricula. In South America, neoclassicism was of particular importance in Argentina, where it differed from its European model in that it did not seek to redress recent stylistic upheavals which … Neoclassical painter, Charles Willson Peale is from a long line of painters and was father to many talented neoclassical artists Continue reading → Francis Scott Key (1779–1843) Francis Scott K Some writers felt the success of the Boom to be a burden, and spiritedly denounced the caricature that reduces Latin American literature to magical realism. In the 20th Century, Latin American literary studies was primarily centered around what came before, during, and after The Boom. At the same time, Roberto Arlt offered a very different style, closer to mass culture and popular literature, reflecting the urbanization and European immigration that was shaping the Southern Cone. Romanticism was then taken up by other prominent literary figures, for which see, the Argentine Domingo Sarmiento's Facundo (1845). Here Are Our Top English Tips, The Best Articles To Improve Your English Language Usage, The Most Common English Language Questions. Downloadable! Latin American literature has a rich and complex tradition of literary production that dates back many centuries. The figure of Jorge Luis Borges, though not a Boom author per se, was extremely influential for the Boom generation. Construction began on this theater in 1855, under the guidance of the outstanding architect Jacobo Gálvez, who was just 34 years of age at the time. This was the first Latin American poetry movement to influence literary culture outside of the region, and was also the first truly Latin American literature, in that national differences were no longer as much of an issue and authors sought to establish Latin American connections. The literary movements of the nineteenth century in Latin America range from Neoclassicism at the beginning of the century to Romanticism in the middle of the century, to Realism and Naturalism in the final third of the century, and finally to the invention of Modernismo, a distinctly Latin American literary movement, at the end of the nineteenth century. In the 1940s, the Cuban novelist and musicologist Alejo Carpentier coined the term "lo real maravilloso" and, along with the Mexican Juan Rulfo and the Guatemalan Miguel Ángel Asturias, would prove a precursor of the Boom and its signature style of "magic realism". The novel became an immediate hit, being translated into over forty languages. Thirty years later, though, a great age of dramatic writing was just beginning to unfold in the country. Retrieved 4 August 2011. The development of archaeology was crucial in the emergence of Neoclassical architecture. Saving Rates in Latin America: A Neoclassical Perspective Andr es Fern andez Ay˘se _Imrohoro glu Cesar E. Tamayo y 7th February 2018 Abstract Latin American countries have long exhibited low levels of saving rates when compared to other countries in relatively similar stages of economic development (e.g., Asian economies). Welfare State Development in Latin America Welfare State Development in Western Europe West Africa, Politics of Women and Conflict Studies Women’s Inclusion in Executive Cabinets Women’s Legal and Constitutional Rights Women’s Political Activism and Civic Engagement … Boom works often tended not to focus on social and local issues, but rather on universal and at times metaphysical themes. The Argentine Jorge Luis Borges invented what was almost a new genre, the philosophical short story, and would go on to become one of the most influential of all Latin American writers. [21][22] The scholarly optic has since widened to regularly examine Latin American literature within fields such as the Global South, postcolonial literature, postmodern literature, Latino philosophy, electronic literature, hysterical realism, speculative fiction, Latino poetry, Latinx pop culture, crime fiction, horror fiction, among other fields. What is Neoclassicism? 13 Altmetric. Latin American literature produced since 2000 spans a wide realm of schools and styles. The revival of a classical style or treatment in art, literature, architecture, or music. Sep 4, 2019 - Avenida de Mayo. Does English Have More Words Than Any Other Language? Delmira Agustini, one of the female figures of modernismo, wrote poetry that both utilized typical modernist images (such as swans) and adapted them with feminist messages and erotic themes, as critic Sylvia Molloy describes.[10]. Other important figures include the Argentine César Aira, the Peruvian-Mexican Mario Bellatin or the Colombian Fernando Vallejo, whose La virgen de los sicarios depicted the violence in Medellín under the influence of the drug trade. Latin America has failed to catch-up in wealth to the level of the United States while other countries at similar or even lower stages of development have been successful. Andrés Fernández 1, Ayşe İmrohoroğlu 2 & Cesar E. Tamayo 3 IMF Economic Review volume 67, pages 791 – 823 (2019)Cite this article. Andrés Fernández 1, Ayşe İmrohoroğlu 2 & Cesar E. Tamayo 3 IMF Economic Review volume 67, pages 791 – 823 (2019)Cite this article. [3][4] Other foundation fictions include the Colombian Jorge Isaacs's María (1867), Ecuadorian Juan León Mera's Cumandá (1879), or the Brazilian Euclides da Cunha's Os Sertões (1902). The next sections discuss prominent trends in these movements more thoroughly. Pre-Columbian cultures were primarily oral, though the Aztecs and Mayans, for instance, produced elaborate codices. Developing economies have exhibited large macroeconomic volatility for a long time. Neustadt International Prize for Literature, "Confronting the Pandemic in a Time of Revolt: Voices From Chile", "The Gaucho Martin Fierro | work by Hernández", "Resistance Literature in Spanish America", "Dos lecturas del cisne: Rubén Darío y Delmira Agustini", "Translations of Two Poems by César Moro", Roberto Bolaño: diez años sin el autor que conquistó a los jóvenes escritores, "Guardian Books podcast: Latin American novels and poetry", "Horror in Literature and Film in Latin America", Learn how and when to remove this template message, The FSG Book of Twentieth-Century Latin American Poetry, The Norton Anthology of Latino Literature, Culture and society in the Spanish Colonial Americas, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Latin_American_literature&oldid=994703030, All Wikipedia articles written in American English, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License, This page was last edited on 17 December 2020, at 03:02. Metrics details. Neocolonialism in Latin America The term neocolonialism is used by some authors to describe the relationship of nominally independent countries in Latin America with metropolitan or developed countries from independence in the 1820s to the present. In the United States, Neoclassical architecture thrived throughout the 19th century and beyond. Other important novelists of the period include the Chilean José Donoso, the Guatemalan Augusto Monterroso and the Cuban Guillermo Cabrera Infante. In Russia, Catherine the Great (1762-96) transformed St. Petersburg into a great European capital in large part by her ambitious embrace of building in the neoclassical style. Brazilian authors who have won the Camões Prize, the most prestigious literary award in the Portuguese language, include: João Cabral de Melo Neto, Rachel de Queiroz, Jorge Amado, Antonio Candido, Autran Dourado, Rubem Fonseca, Lygia Fagundes Telles, João Ubaldo Ribeiro, and Ferreira Gullar. Latin American countries have long exhibited low levels of saving rates when compared to other countries in relatively similar stages of economic development (e.g., Asian economies). Miguel Ángel Asturias was awarded the Nobel prize for literature, making his magical realist, metaphor-heavy, folkloristic and sometimes politically charged novels widely known in Europe and North America. The Neoclassical style also became widespread in colonial Latin America. Daros Latin America External link was created as the family business expanded its presence in the subcontinent, but separately from the main collection, and … Emerging voices include Fernando Ampuero, Miguel Gutierrez, Edgardo Rivera Martinez, Jaime Marchán and Manfredo Kempff. PLAY. Neoclassical literature is characterized by order, accuracy, and structure. Monticello-designed by Thomas Jefferson-heralded the rise of American Neoclassicism. The only … A Naturalist trail-blazer, Peruvian Mercedes Cabello de Carbonera penned Blanca Sol (1888) to critique women's lack of practical work options in her society. At times, colonial practices stirred a lively debate about the ethics of colonization and the status of the indigenous peoples, as reflected for instance in Bartolomé de las Casas's Brief Account of the Destruction of the Indies. Borges opined that it was "the Don Quixote of Latin America." Abstract. After World War II, Latin America enjoyed increasing economic prosperity, and a new-found confidence also gave rise to a literary boom. Women writers of the nineteenth century often wrote about the inequalities in Latin America that were vestiges of colonialism such as the marginalization and oppression of Indigenous peoples, slaves, and women. The essays collected here examine different dimensions of neo-classical visual culture in Latin America during the period, exploring how classicism was imposed, promoted, adapted, and contested in various social, political, economic, cultural, and temporal situations. Paz has also been a recipient of the Jerusalem Prize, as well as an honorary doctorate from Harvard. Neoclassicism in America Exploration of some of the most influential Neoclassical artists and writers in america in the 18th and 19th centuries. [12] Masters of the prose poem include Jorge Luis Borges ("Everything and Nothing"), Pablo Neruda (Passions and Impressions), Octavio Paz (Aguila o Sol?/Eagle or Sun? p. 49. A prime example of this sort of message is found in Martí's Our America, published in 1892. Latin American writers sought a Latin American identity, and this would later be closely tied with the Modernismo literary movement. Though modernismo itself is often seen as aestheticist and anti-political, some poets and essayists, Martí among them but also the Peruvians Manuel González Prada and José Carlos Mariátegui, introduced compelling critiques of the contemporary social order and particularly the plight of Latin America's indigenous peoples. ), Alejandra Pizarnik ("Sex/Night"), and Giannina Braschi (Empire of Dreams).[13][12]. The "libertadores" themselves were also often distinguished writers, such as Simón Bolívar and Andrés Bello. Notes on Precursors to Independence Liberators . The Boom launched Latin American literature onto the world stage. Cultural independence spread across Latin America during this time, and writers depicted Latin American themes and locations in their works. Neoclassicism In the 18th century the monarchies had imposed Neoclassicism on their main Latin American colonies in order to connect them to Europe and support the ruling establishment. 1915. Likewise, Alberto Blest Gana's Martin Rivas (1862), widely acknowledged as the first Chilean novel, was at once a passionate love story and a national epic about revolution. — (IDB Working Paper Series ; 842) Includes bibliographic references. Following the excavations at the buried city of Pompeii, Winckelmann published Thoughts on the Imitation of Greek Works in Painting and Sculpture (1750) and Geschichte der Kunst des Alterthums orHistory of Ancient A… Oral accounts of mythological and religious beliefs were also sometimes recorded after the arrival of European colonizers, as was the case with the Popol Vuh. Another key contribution that helped fuel the rise of Neoclassicism was the work of German philosopher and archaeologist Johann Joachim Winckelmann (1717–1768). Finally, a new breed of chroniclers is represented by the more journalistic Carlos Monsiváis and Pedro Lemebel, who draw also on the long-standing tradition of essayistic production as well as the precedents of engaged and creative non-fiction represented by the Uruguayan Eduardo Galeano and the Mexican Elena Poniatowska, among others. [14] In Peru, Cesar Moro and Emilio Adolfo Westphalen developed Surrealism in the Andes region.[15]. Motivated by this fact, this paper examines the time path of the saving rates between 1970 and 2010 in three Latin American countries— Chile, Colombia, and Mexico—through the lens of the neoclassical growth model. Skip to content. Although some of our scholars have appreciated the American contribution to the study of international relations (e.g. 109 Accesses. Another important international literary award is the Jerusalem Prize; its recipients include: Marcos Aguinis (Argentina), Mario Vargas Llosa (Peru), Ernesto Sabato (Argentina), Octavio Paz (Mexico), and Jorge Luis Borges (Argentina). Neoclassical art was common across many parts of Europe, particularly in architecture. From 1960 to 1967, some of the major seminal works of the boom were published and before long became widely noticed, admired, and commented on beyond Latin America itself. As an aesthetic and artistic style neoclassicism originated in Rome in the mid 18th century, combining a reaction against the late baroque and rococo with a new interest in antiquity. Menu. Construction began on this theater in 1855, under the guidance of the outstanding architect Jacobo Gálvez, who was just 34 years of age at the time. 6 words related to neoclassicism: artistic style, idiom, arts, humanistic discipline, humanities, liberal arts. [18], Among the novelists, perhaps the most prominent author to emerge from Latin America in the 20th century is Gabriel García Márquez. Oral accounts of mythological and religious beliefs were also sometimes recorded after the arrival of European colonizers, as was the case with the Popol Vuh. [9], In the late 19th century, modernismo emerged, a poetic movement whose founding text was the Nicaraguan Rubén Darío's Azul (1888). Mestizos and natives also contributed to the body of colonial literature. There is a vibrant tradition of prose poetry in 20th century Latin America; the prose poem becomes a prevalent format for lyrical philosophical inquiry and sensual sentiments of the region's poets. After Modernismo several lesser known, short-lived poetry movements emerged in Latin America. Antonyms for neoclassicism. The neoclassical building style flourished throughout the 18th and 19th centuries, notably in continental Europe, Britain, and the United States as well as Latin America. Buenos Aires, Argentina. In this way, the early twentieth century also saw the rise of indigenismo, a trend previously popularized by Clorinda Matto de Turner, that was dedicated to representing indigenous culture and the injustices that such communities were undergoing, as for instance with the Peruvian José María Arguedas and the Mexican Rosario Castellanos. It was distinguished by daring and experimental novels such as Julio Cortázar's Rayuela (1963), that were frequently published in Spanish and quickly translated into English. Latin American literature consists of the oral and written literature of Latin America in several languages, particularly in Spanish, Portuguese, and the indigenous languages of the Americas as well as literature of the United States written in the Spanish language. p. cm. Some notable authors who have won Brazil's Prêmio Machado de Assis include: Rachel de Queiroz, Cecília Meireles, João Guimarães Rosa, Érico Veríssimo, Lúcio Cardoso, and Ferreira Gullar. Index for Baroque and Neoclassical Latin American Humanities (1600-1810) Notes on Baroque Characteristics ; Notes on Sor Juana Inés de la Cruz. Resistance against colonialism, a trend that emerged earlier in the nineteenth century, was also extremely important in modernismo. Download PDF: Sorry, we are unable to provide the full text but you may find it at the following location(s): https://www.econstor.eu/bitstr... (external link) Notes Neoclassicism in Latin America. Contemporary literature on Latin America has often addressed the central theme of the rise of the so-called pink tide. It's here! From the very moment when Europeans encountered the New World, early explorers and conquistadores produced written accounts and crónicas of their experience, such as Columbus's letters or Bernal Díaz del Castillo's description of the conquest of Mexico. The most important literary prize of the Spanish language is widely considered to be the Cervantes Prize of Spain. 13 Altmetric. The 19th century was a period of "foundational fictions" (in critic Doris Sommer's words),[1] novels in the Romantic or Naturalist traditions that attempted to establish a sense of national identity, and which often focused on the role and rights of the indigenous or the dichotomy of "civilization or barbarism", pioneered in Latin America by Esteban Echeverría [2] who was influenced by the Parisian romantics while he lived there from 1825-1930. Neoclassicism in America. Post-Boom literature is sometimes characterized by a tendency towards irony and humor, as the narrative of Alfredo Bryce Echenique, and towards the use of popular genres, as in the work of Manuel Puig. The Latin American authors who have won the most prestigious literary award in the world, the Nobel Prize for Literature, are: Gabriela Mistral (Chile, 1945), Miguel Ángel Asturias (Guatemala, 1967), Pablo Neruda (Chile, 1971), Gabriel García Márquez (Colombia, 1982), Octavio Paz (Mexico, 1990), and Mario Vargas Llosa (Peru, 2010). [25][23], "Spanish American literature" redirects here. Neoclassicism continued to be a major force in academic art through the h century and beyond—a constant antithesis to Romanticism or Gothic revivals —although from the late h century on it had often been considered anti-modern, or even reactionary, in influential critical circles. Darío also worked to highlight the threat of American imperialism, which can be seen in his poem To Roosevelt, as well as his other works Cake-Walk: El Baile de Moda. What are synonyms for neoclassicism? An increase in women's education and writing brought some women writers to the forefront, including the Cuban Romantic author Gertrudis Gómez de Avellaneda with the novel Sab (1841), a romantic novel offering subtle critique of slavery and the treatment of women in Cuba, the Peruvian Naturalist author Clorinda Matto de Turner who wrote what is considered one of the most important novels of "indigenismo" in the 19th century: Aves sin nido (1889), and the Argentinian Romantic writer Juana Manuela Gorriti (1818-1892), who penned a variety of novels and short stories, such as La hija del mashorquero (1860) and directed a literary circle in Peru. Candidates for the prize include: Ricardo Piglia (Argentina), Mario Vargas Llosa (Peru), Marjorie Agosin (Chile), Eduardo Galeano (Uruguay), Homero Aridjis (Mexico), Luis Fernando Verissimo (Brazil), Augusto Monterroso (Guatemala), Ernesto Cardenal (Nicaragua), Carlos Fuentes (Mexico), Jorge Luis Borges (Argentina), Jorge Amado (Brazil), Ernesto Sábato (Argentina), Carlos Drummond de Andrade (Brazil), and Pablo Neruda (Chile). In the 1920s Mexico, the Stridentism and los Contemporáneos represented the influx of avant-garde movements, while the Mexican Revolution inspired novels such as Mariano Azuela's Los de abajo, a committed work of social realism and the revolution and its aftermath would continue to be a point of reference for Mexican literature for many decades. Neoclassical architecture is an architectural style produced by the Neoclassical movement that began in the mid-18th century in Italy and France which then became one the most prominent and iconic architectural styles in the Western World.. Metrics details. Teaching with images – For K-12 teachers; Syllabi / AP & A-level courses; Art Appreciation; Creating + conserving Glossary of Art Terms. The story of a poor gaucho drafted to fight a frontier war against Indians, Martín Fierro is an example of the "gauchesque", an Argentine genre of poetry centered around the lives of gauchos.[5]. Neoclassicism in America Neoclassical art was common across many parts of Europe, particularly in architecture. Baroque, Rococo, Neoclassicism and Colonial Latin America. The Latin American wars of Independence that occurred in the early nineteenth century in Latin America led to literary themes of identity, resistance, and human rights. As a matter of fact, almost every single visitor to the city will direct their steps in the direction of the Museum El Prado, likely the most emblematic building of Spanish Neoclassicism. Some works anticipated an end to the prosperity that was occurring, and even predicted old problems would resurface in the near future. There has also been considerable attention paid to the genre of testimonio, texts produced in collaboration with subaltern subjects such as Rigoberta Menchú. In music, the term refers to a return by composers of the early 20th century to the forms and styles of the 17th and 18th centuries, as a reaction against 19th-century romanticism. Often, these wide macro-economic uctuations have been observed in the data in combination with sizeable swings in capital ows. Downloadable! Writers often followed and innovated popular literary movements (such as Romanticism, Realism, and Naturalism), but many were also exploring ideas such as nationalism and independence. 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